[Retracted] Intelligent CO<sub>2</sub> Monitoring for Diagnosis of Sleep Apnea Using Neural Cryptography Techniques

Hamza, Manar Ahmed; Althobaiti, Maha M.; Ali, Ola Abdelgney Omer; Larabi-Marie-Sainte, Souad; Eltahir, Majdy M.; Hilal, Anwer Mustafa; Al Duhayyim, Mesfer; Yaseen, Ishfaq

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/6349335

Adsorption Science & Technology

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Volume 2022 | Article ID 6349335 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/6349335

[Retracted] Intelligent CO₂ Monitoring for Diagnosis of Sleep Apnea Using Neural Cryptography Techniques

Manar Ahmed Hamza,¹Maha M. Althobaiti,²Ola Abdelgney Omer Ali,³Souad Larabi-Marie-Sainte,⁴Majdy M. Eltahir,⁵Anwer Mustafa Hilal,¹Mesfer Al Duhayyim,⁶and Ishfaq Yaseen¹

Academic Editor: Jeevan Kumar Reddy Modigunta

Received08 Nov 2021

Revised12 Dec 2021

Accepted18 Dec 2021

Published18 Jan 2022

Abstract

In biomass wastage, carbon is one of the adsorbent materials. Biomass wastage contains complex materials, and pressure, various temperatures, and presence of various chemical components which are subjected to the adsorption of carbon are a tedious task, and it is used in the sustainable waste management system. While screening the biomass wastage management system, prediction of activated carbon’s quality and understanding of the mechanism of adsorption of are a complicated task. Many research works have been developed; the main issues are inaccurate and inefficient prediction of carbon available in the various feedstock of biomass wastage. To overcome these issues, this paper proposed gene expression programming (GEP) with -nearest neighbour (GEP-KNN). The key advantage of the proposed work shows excellent performance in the prediction of adsorbing carbon and accuracy. The accuracy of the GEP-KNN algorithm with different values produced the highest accuracy at and of 95.12% and 95.67%; the lowest accuracy is of 65.34%.

1. Introduction

In the ecosystem of the globe, one of the main sources is storage of carbon in the terrestrial ecosystem which creates terrestrial biomass [1]. The huge amount of carbon availability in the ecosystem plays a vital role in reducing global warming [2, 3]. Adsorption of carbon in biomass wastage has been taken as a vital role for reducing emission [4–7]. Activated carbon is an adsorbent component of biomass wastage with large adsorption capacity, superior surface reactivity, and high porosity. It can be used in the field of water treatment, agricultural wastage water treatment, industrial application, and pharmaceutical [8–10]. The toxic pollutants available in the terrestrial, industrial wastage water, and drinking water are important environmental issues. Adsorption has become one of the best techniques in removing pollutants. Activated carbon acts as an adsorbent material for purifying the water and reduces the pollutant content.

For implementing the concept of adsorption of carbon in the biomass wastage system, so much research works have been done. The major drawbacks are poor quality, ineffectiveness, high time consumption, and inaccuracy. To overcome these drawbacks, the proposed work GEP-KNN predicts the adsorption of in the biomass wastage system. This proposed work provides the best technique in the aspects of providing highly accurate detection of in an effective way. Time consumption is also low and minimizes the error rate. This proposed work fills gaps of existing research work by impacting the interaction of biomass wastage system and implementing the properties of activated carbon using GEP-KNN.

Machine learning approaches include support vector regression, linear regression, and random forest regression for the prediction of iodine component in the activated carbon product. This technique includes various types of straw like carbonization and activation methods [11]. Implementing geometric expression programming includes Symbiotic Gene Expression Programming (SGEP) which is based on the concept of symbiotic algorithm which improves the process, and it has low-efficiency issues when it handles a complex problem [12]. This paper [13] computationally proposed GEP in terms of the expression tree. Therefore, it can reduce the chromosomes. The main contribution of this work includes (1)improving efficiency; we proposed GEP with KNN. This classifier provides high-quality prediction of in the biomass wastage system(2)implementing texture properties in biomass wastage and performing the evaluation in the metric measures of the correlation coefficient, RMSE, and bias

The paper has been organized as follows: Section 2describes the review of the literature, Section 3 introduces prediction of in the biomass wastage system using GEP with KNN, Section 4 discusses the experimented results, and Section 5 concludes the paper with future directions.

2. Review of Literature

Due to the development of industrialization and increase in population, the environment got polluted and there is increased global warming. To reduce global warming in the polluted environment, adsorption of carbon from biomass wastage is needed to protect our globe from global warming. The form of activated carbon is in a microporous form of carbon with the structure of volume, surface area, and capacity of high adsorption [14]. For reducing the emission of , adsorption is needed in the aspects of cryogenic, adsorption, membrane, and microalgal biofixation. It separates and reduces the regeneration energy requirements [15]. Adsorption of isotherms of CO₂ is available and also at various pressures and temperatures by using the volumetric process [16]. This paper [17] proposed that activated carbon is taken as a precursor and provided into disposal of sustainable wastage. And it associates developing the environment which increases concerns; there is an increased research interest to find low-cost biomass waste materials as well as low-cost processes for production.

The development of civilization and agriculture and at the same time wastage from industry and agriculture are considered precursors of activated carbon production [18]. Similarly, open burning of wastage emits obnoxious gases and particulate matter which pollute the environment, and also, during the rainy season, deposition of wastage will block drainage channels. These deposited wastages are considered biomass wastage and exhibit activated carbon for adsorption [19, 20]. Tables 1 and 2 shows survey on adsorption of in biomass.

3. Proposed Methodology

adsorption in the biomass waste management system is at various temperatures and pressure with various thermodynamic properties like isosteric heat of adsorption, entropy, and Gibbs free energy. In this proposed work, we implement the fusion of GEP with KNN algorithm to improve the efficiency and accurate prediction of . The architecture of the proposed work (GEP with KNN) is given in Figure 1.

Figure 1 describes three phases, namely, data collection, preprocessing, and analysis of GEP-KNN.

3.1. Preprocessing

3.1.1. Normalization

To enhance the quality of the GEP-KNN algorithm’s output, it undergoes data normalization by using the function of linear normalization as given below: where is the value normalized for the data sample point and , are parameter values of minimum and maximum.

3.2. Applying Proposed Method of GEP-KNN

3.2.1. Overview of GEP

Gene expression programming (GEP) is an evolutionary-based computation algorithm. This algorithm is based on the inheritance concept of genotype from the genetic algorithm (GA) and phenotype from genetic programming (GP). The prediction of in biomass GEP plays a vital role in the aspect of handling multiple components available in biomass wastage, and also, it is faster than genetic programming (GP). Genotype acts like GA, and phenotype is like a tree structure format with variable size and length. Based on the threshold values of phenotype and replicator, it produced the output. It implements the relationship between various components available in biomass wastage by applying the Boolean logical operators like AND, OR, and NOT with the algebraic operators of .

3.2.2. GEP in Biomass Wastage

Finding the relationship of components in biomass wastage with respect to the variables used in the GEP algorithm is creating a population of linear chromosomes. For each component in the biomass waste, the position of genes of these chromosomes and its variable is placed. Once is identified and its position is filled, evaluate the fitness of each component (chromosome) in biomass wastage. In the GEP algorithm, all identification of component (chromosome) is represented by expression tree (ET) format. That is similar to gene’s phenotype [29]. Then, select the next component as the next generation; construct the linear genotype state of the chromosome as applied.

The most important parameters used in the GEP algorithm is creating expression trees (ET) and chromosomes. The process of transforming information (chromosomes) to ET is based on a set of rules, and it is known as translation. Evaluate the genetic code by one-to-one relationship between chromosome symbols with terminal values or functions. The GEP algorithmic steps are given in Algorithm 1.

Step 1. Initialize the population.
Step 2. Execute chromosome expression as ET.
Step 3. Calculate fitness function by using
where is the selection range value and is the fitness value of individual chromosome and is the target value of fitness value for . is the precision.
Step 4. If , then the precision value is 0.
Step 5. ; here, consider , and now,
Step 6. Create chromosomes by selecting the set of terminals and function by using parametric value .
Step 7. Select the architecture of chromosomes in the aspects of head length and number of genes in the chromosome.
Step 8. Use the parametric value of linking all subexpression functions of tree value by using addition operation. There are three types of transportation and three types of recombination.
Step 9. Use all operators of genetic, namely, mutation, three types of transportation, and three types of recombination as in the parametric table.
Step 10. To create a new chromosome, go to Step 2. Repeat it until all chromosomes get evaluated.

Algorithm 1 seems to evaluate the fitness function and choose the functions and terminals. Construct the structure of chromosomes based on the gene number and length and number of generations. Apply linking function and train the model of GEP until current generation is evaluated and repeat the process for executing the next generation.

3.2.3. KNN

The -nearest neighbour algorithm is one of the most popular classification algorithms. The KNN algorithm is selecting the new component of the unknown category for the classification. The KNN classification algorithm can be used to compute both regression and classification. Selecting the sample training , and sampling data is distributed in and categorized into . From the training data set of values, evaluate the nearest sample value using discriminant function . Identify of the neighbour samples with , where . Select the sample of data and evaluate . The algorithm for KNN is given in Algorithm 2.

Step 1. Split the data set into the training and testing data sets and consider training sample data set . And the category of sample . And testing sample data .
Step 2. Take the initial value and choose the initial nearest neighbour to .
Step 3. Evaluate the distance between the test data set and all other training data set values.
Step 4. Sort the output distance values in ascending order and select the appropriate value.
Step 5. Choose the closest known sample values.
Step 6. Count the sample of categories with the highest probability within the known sample values.
Step 7. Implement the category of test sample data value as the category obtained by statistics using Step 6.

The KNN algorithm describes the classification of the unknown component from extracting the features of it and compared it with the sample category of data. Choose the -nearest neighbour and count the data which belongs to the same category of data.

3.2.4. Fusion of GEP-KNN Proposed Technology

In order to get high quality in an effective way of absorption of carbon in the biomass wastage system, this proposed work is implemented. The procedure for GEP-KNN is given in Algorithm 3.

Step 1. For each instance value in the training data set is the training data set.
Step 2. Encode component (chromosome) of biomass wastage in .
Step 3. For each instance value in
Step 4. Read and into GEP
Step 5. Consider as and as .
Step 6. Initiate the basic component functions of GEP: function set, link function, mutation selection, crossover, and fitness using Equation (3).
Step 7. For each generation, GEP implement Algorithm 1 (Step 3 to Step 5)
Step 8. Until termination condition or fitness criteria satisfied.
Step 9. Output of GEP represents
Step 10. Initialize KNN(GEP)// using Algorithm 2
Step 11. Consider as threshold value
Step 10. For each in training data set do
Step 11. Evaluate
Step 12. If
Step 13. (2)
Step 14. Else
Step 15. End if
Step 16. End for
Step 17. End for
Step 18. evaluate the prediction list
Step 19. End

Algorithm 3 describes fusion of GEP with the KNN algorithm. In the execution of GEP, it predicts the component from biomass wastage. The training data set for each component undergoes Algorithm 1 and produces the output as adsorption of carbon and then applied to the KNN algorithm for getting more accurate and effective classification. Because the KNN algorithm is a supervised classification algorithm, it checks each component in the output set and chooses its neighbour value to evaluate the exact component.

4. Result and Analysis

4.1. Data Collection

Data is collected from peer-viewed journals using different keywords like biomass, biochar, and adsorption, and 632 data points were collected and used in this work [30]. Most of the data were collected from the researcher’s report by using WebPlotDigitizer software [31]. The GEP model was implemented by using GeneXproTools 5.0. From the total data points, we randomly selected 80% of data points and labelled them as the training data set and the remaining 20% of data points are selected and labelled as the testing data set. The features of collected input data are divided into three categories, namely, properties of texture data, elementary composition of biomass wastage, and adsorption parameters such as temperature and pressure. The texture properties of biomass wastage are total pore volume (TPV, ), surface area (SA, ), and micropore volume (MPV, ). The basic elemental compositions are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen contents (wt%). These machine learning algorithms implemented as used here were performed in Python using the open-source scikit-learn library.

4.2. Performance of Metric Measures

The performance is evaluated in terms of correlation coefficient and root mean square error (RMSE) as defined below: where , and are predicted, actual, and mean values of the targeted component, and is the number of data points for any instance, and is the total number of data points. In this work GEP-KNN, the metric measures of its performance based on accuracy, specificity, sensitivity, precision, and -score evaluation matrices were employed:

Table 3 shows evaluation of metric measures.

Table 3 shows that the performance of evaluation based on correlation coefficient, RMSE, MRE, and bias implemented in genetic algorithm (GA), GEP, our proposed work (GEP-KNN) algorithms in both training and testing data sets. The correlation coefficient shows strongly correlated 0.94 in the training phase and 0.96 in the testing phase. RMSE shows below 8% in the training phase and in the testing phase below 17%. For the bias value, it is underestimated in the training phase whereas in the testing phase, GEP and GEP-KNN algorithms are overestimated compared with GA. For the mean relative error, in the training phase, there is a little bit of increase when compared with the testing phase for each algorithm. That is, GA error is increased in the testing phase and so on. Figure 2 shows adsorption of in biomass wastage input features like SA, MPV, TPV, oxygen (O), temperature (T), and pressure (P).

Figure 2 shows the impact of input features of adsorption in biomass wastage. The input features like surface area (SA, ) reach 8000 Total pore volume (TPV, ) got the maximum reach at -0.1 . Micropore volume (MPV, ) reaches 1 . Table 4 shows the report of performance metric measures.

From Table 4, the accuracy of GEP-KNN (proposed work) is higher as compared to other classifier algorithms of GA and GEP. In Table 4, the next higher accuracy is GEP which is also closer to GEP-KNN. Figure 3 shows the computation time for adsorption in various algorithms like GA GEP and GEP-KNN.

Figure 3 shows that the proposed work needs less computation time for the prediction of adsorption in biomass wastage. Figure 4 shows the accuracy rate for implementation GEP-KNN with various values.

Figure 4 shows that the value of having the highest accuracy is and with the rate of accuracy as 95.12% and 95.67%; the lowest accuracy is of 65.34%. Table 5 shows the effectiveness of various machine learning algorithms in terms of various influent indicators by using where is the total number of testing data and is the total number of losing test data.

Table 5 shows that the effectiveness of our proposed work produces better results compared with other existing algorithms.

5. Conclusion

The adsorption of in biomass wastage uses evolutionary algorithms of gene expression programming (GEP) with -nearest neighbour (KNN). This algorithm is implemented in the aspect of texture properties of biomass wastage like total pore volume (TPV, ), surface area (SA, ), and micropore volume (MPV, ). Based on these texture properties, our proposed work (GEP-KNN) effectively predicts the adsorption of in biomass wastage at a minimum error rate value and low computation time. The accuracy of the GEP-KNN algorithm with different values produced the highest accuracy at and of 95.12% and 95.67%; the lowest accuracy is of 65.34%. Our proposed work GEP-KNN outperforms the best result compared with existing classifiers. In future work, this will be extended by using various ML algorithms, and also, we will upgrade our work in various texture properties for predicting various components in biomass wastage.

Data Availability

All the required data is available in the manuscript itself.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University for funding this work under grant number RGP.1/172/42. We deeply acknowledge Taif University for supporting this research through the Taif University Researchers Supporting Project Number (TURSP-2020/328), Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia. The authors would like to acknowledge the support of Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, for partially supporting this project by paying the Article Processing Charges (APC) of this publication.

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Copyright © 2022 Manar Ahmed Hamza et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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