Fractal Dimension Analysis of Texture Formation of Whey Protein-Based Foods

Table 2

Fractal dimension () values of different types of gels, measured by using microscopic method.

Reference	Gel type
de Kruif et al. (1995)	Salt-induced cold gelationβ-Lg [NaCl] = 0.1 or 0.5 M	2.2
Hagiwara et al. (1997a)	Heat-inducedβ-Lg, pH = 7.0, [CaCl2] = 30 mM	2.7
Hagiwara et al. (1997b)	Heat inducedβ-Lg, pH = 7.0, [NaCl] = 1.0 M	2.68
Hagiwara et al. (1998)	Heat-induced BSA, I = 50 mM buffer pH 5.1, 0.1 M NaCl, II = 50 mM buffer pH 7.0, 30 mM CaCl2, III = 50 mM buffer pH 7.0, 5 mM CaCl2	I = 2.81; II = 2.81; III = 2.68
Marangoni et al. (2000)	Heat-induced WPI (5% w/v); salt-induced cold gelation	~2.45 for 300 mM NaCl at different protein concentration
Alting et al. (2003)	Acid-induced cold gelation WPI 9%	2.3
Kuhn et al. (2010)	Heat-induced WPI + 150 mM NaCl or CaCl2	CaCl2 = 2.82; NaCl = 2.81
Torres et al. (2012)	Yogurt with substituted microparticulate whey protein (MWP)	1.4–2.6
Andoyo et al. (2015)	Acid-induced cold gelation whey protein aggregates (WPA) & WPA + native micellar casein (NMC), pH 4.5	CSLM: WPA = 2.15; WPA + NMC = 2.64; TEM: WPA + NMC = 2.69
Eissa, Khan (2005)	Whey protein solution: 3% and 7.5% (heat with/without transglutaminase, TG), low pH cold-set whey protein gel, final pH 4.0	CSLM: 1.96–1.98; Rheology: 2.05–2.09