The Scourge of Aflatoxins in Kenya: A 60-Year Review (1960 to 2020)

Table 7

Analytical methods used by aflatoxin investigations in Kenya.

Methods of analysis	Samples/matrices	Mycotoxins analyzed	Years	Authors
ELISA	Maize grain	Total AFs	2020	Marete et al. [178]
Fluorimetry, PCR	Soil	Total AFs	2020	Monda et al. [46]
UHPLC	Maize grain (fresh), maize flour	AFB1, AFG1, AFB2, AFG2	2020	Nabwire et al. [77]
UPLC, PCR	Maize grain	AFB1, AFG1, AFB2, AFG2	2019	Oloo et al. [42]
Quantitative PCR (qPCR), TLC, HPLC	Maize tissues/grain	A. flavus biomass, AFB1, AFG1, AFB2, AFG2	2019	Mitema et al, [43]
ELISA	Bovine milk	AFM1	2019	Kagera et al. [129]
ELISA	Maize	AFB1	2019	Mahuku et al. [94]
ELISA	Maize	Total AFs, FUM	2019	Njeru et al. [143]
ELISA	Bovine milk	AFM1	2019	Kuboka et al. [135]
PCR	Soils	A. flavus genotyping	2018	Islam et al. [47]
LC-MS/MS, UHPLC-TTQS, PCR	Maize samples	AFB1, AFG1, AFB2, AFG2, Aspergillus spp genotyping	2018	Okoth et al. [48]
PCR, HPLC	Kimere (a fermented milk product)	AFB1	2018	Nduti [179]
LFI	Maize grain, human sera (children)	Total AFs, AFB1 (lysine adducts)	2018	Hoffmann et al. [180]
ELISA	Raw, pasteurized and UHT milk, yoghurt, Lala	AFM1	2018	Lindahl et al. [90]
ELISA, TLC, HPLC	Maize grain	Total AFs, AFB1	2018	Obonyo and Salano [63]
ELISA, PCR	Maize kernels	Total AFs	2018	Gachara et al. [110]
ELISA, LC-HRMS/MS	Fish feeds	Total AFs	2018	Mwihia et al. [73]
ELISA, HPLC	Urine, breast milk, maize flour, sorghum, millet	AFM1	2017	Kang’ethe et al. [169]
LFI	Maize grain and maize flour	Total AFs	2017	Nduti et al. [95]
ELISA	Herbal products	Total AFs, FUMs	2017	Keter et al. [91]
HPLC, UPLC-MS/MS, LC-MS/MS	Human urine, human blood	AFM1, AFB1 (lysine adducts)	2017	Awuor et al. [181]
ELISA	Dairy cattle feeds, bovine milk	AFB1, AFM1	2016	Ochungo et al. [58]
ELISA	Bovine milk	AFM1	2016	Kirino et al. [131]
ELISA	Animal feeds and bovine milk	AFB1, DON, and AFM1	2016	Makau et al. [142]
ELISA, HPLC, LC/MS	Maize grain, urine	AFB1, AFM1	2016	Nduti et al. [182]
ELISA	Dairy cattle concentrates, bovine milk	AFB1, AFM1	2016	Senerwa et al. [133]
ELISA	Bovine milk (raw and processed), dairy products	AFM1	2016	Langat et al. [132]
ELISA	Maize, sorghum, and milk	Total AFs and AFM1	2016	Kiarie et al. [66]
HPLC	Peanuts	Total AFs	2016	Menza et al. [121]
ELISA	Maize grain	Total AFs	2016	Kirui [183]
ELISA	Cassava (chips and flour)	Total AFs	2015	Gacheru et al. [126]
ELISA	Omena, maize, sorghum, rice, peanuts, cassava	AFB1, AFM1	2015	Obade et al. [80]
ELISA	Maize (grain and flour)	Total AFs, FUM	2015	Mutiga et al. [72]
ELISA	Maize, sorghum, millet	Total AFs	2015	Sirma et al. [76]
HPLC	Human sera (women)	AFB1 (lysine adducts)	2015	Leroy et al. [60]
ELISA, qPCR	Human sera (children)	AFB1 (albumin adducts)	2015	Castelino et al. [162]
TLC, HPLC	Fresh and sun-dried fish (Rastrineobola argentea)	Total AFs	2015	Orony et al. [85]
ELISA	Cattle feeds, rice, maize, peanuts	Total AFs	2014	Nyangaga [86]
ELISA	Maize grain	Total AFs, FUM	2014	Mutiga et al. [75]
TLC, HPLC	Maize grains, githeri, muthokoi	Total AFs	2014	Kilonzo et al. [109]
ELISA	Bovine milk	AFM1	2014	Sirma et al. [130]
ELISA, BGYF	Maize grain	Total AFs, FUM	2014	Murithi [54]
LFI	Busaa (a local brew)	Total AFs, FUM, DON	2014	Kirui et al. [141]
ELISA	Peanuts (raw and roasted)	Total AFs	2013	Nyirahakizimana et al. [115]
ELISA	Peanuts	Total AFs	2013	Mutegi et al. [64]
ELISA	Peanuts and peanut products	Total AFs	2013	Mutegi et al. [62]
ELISA	Peanuts (raw and roasted), peanut butter	Total AFs	2013	Ndung’u et al. [53]
TQMS	Human sera	AFB1 (lysine adducts)	2013	Yard et al. [184]
ELISA	Peanuts	Total AFs	2012	Mutegi et al. [44]
LC-MS/MS, PCR	Maize kernels	AFB1, AFG1, AFB2, AFG2	2012	Okoth et al. [41]
TLC	Maize (grains, flour), milled maize-cereal products, dairy cattle feed, oil seed cake	Total AFs	2012	Okoth and Kola [78]
ELISA	Human plasma (children)	AFB1 (albumin adducts)	2012	Gong et al. [185]
ELISA	Maize (grains, flour, semiprocessed), soil, mill dust	Total AFs	2012	Muthomi et al. [107]
Fluorimetry	Maize grain	Total AFs	2011	Daniel et al. [70]
LC-MS, HPLC	Commodities, feeds, and feed ingredients	Total AFs, FUM, ZEA, trichothecenes (A&B), ochratoxin A	2011	Rodrigues et al. [140]
ELISA	Ground maize, soil	Total AFs	2010	Probst et al. [55]
ELISA	Milk, animal feeds	AFM1, AFB1	2009	Kang’ethe and Lang’a [89]
ELISA	Maize, soils, mill dust	AFB1	2009	Muthomi et al. [40]
ELISA	Peanuts	Total AFs	2009	Mutegi et al. [61]
ELISA	Maize grain	AFB1, FB1	2009	Alakonya et al. [139]
HPLC/fluorimetry	Maize grain	AFB1	2007	Probst et al. [39]
ELISA	Peanuts	Total AFs	2007	Mutegi et al. [65]
HPLC	Maize kernels, maize flour, muthokoi	Total AFs	2005	Lewis et al. [71]
Fluorimetry	Maize grain	Total AFs	2005	Azziz-Baumgartner et al. [69]
Fluorimetry	Maize grain and maize products	Total AFs	2005	Muture and Ogana [103]
ELISA	Pilsner and Tusker beers	AFB1, FB1, DON, ZEA	2004	Mbugua and Gathumbi [138]
TLC	Peanuts	Total AFs	2004	Gachomo et al. [84]
TLC	Weaning foods	Total AFs	2004	Okoth and Ohingo [118]
TLC, HPLC	Malted millet, maize flour	AFB1, AFB2	2000	Kenji et al. [81]
ELISA, HPLC-FS	Human sera	AFB1 (lysine adducts)	1990	Wild et al. [186]
HPLC	Breast milk, human sera, neonatal cord blood, blood (pregnant women)	AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, AFM1, AFM2, aflatoxicol	1989	Maxwell et al. [187]
HPLC	Human urine	AFB1 (guanine adduct)	1987	Autrup et al. [188]
TLC	Local beer, food (maize, millet, sorghum, pigeon peas, and yam components)	Total AFs	1973	Peers and Linsell [82]

Years are those in which the data joined scientific literature with most data gathered and analyzed in more than 3 months before publication. Muthokoi are maize kernels with the outer hull removed. Lala also called Maziwa Lala or Mala is a locally fermented milk product. Busaa is a sociocultural maize-based traditional brew mostly consumed during events such as male circumcisions, weddings, and funerals, made from raw maize flour and semiground finger millet malt [141]. LC-HRMS/MS: liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry. LFI: Hoffmann et al. [180] used Romer AgraStrip rapid test; Kirui et al. [141] used Envirologix Quick Tox kits.