Facile Synthesis and Application of Ag-NPs for Controlling Antibiotic-Resistant<i>Pseudomonas</i> spp. and <i>Bacillus</i> spp. in a Poultry Farm Environment

Rahman, Aminur; Rasid, Harunur; Ali, Md. Isahak; Yeachin, Nymul; Alam, Md. Shahin; Hossain, Khandker Saadat; Kafi, Md. Abdul

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6260066

Journal of Nanotechnology

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Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Conclusions Data Availability Conflicts of Interest Acknowledgments Supplementary Materials References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2023 | Article ID 6260066 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6260066

Facile Synthesis and Application of Ag-NPs for Controlling Antibiotic-ResistantPseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. in a Poultry Farm Environment

Aminur Rahman,¹Harunur Rasid,¹Md. Isahak Ali,¹Nymul Yeachin,²Md. Shahin Alam,³Khandker Saadat Hossain,²and Md. Abdul Kafi¹

Academic Editor: Gangaraju Gedda

Received22 Dec 2022

Revised02 Apr 2023

Accepted08 Apr 2023

Published20 Apr 2023

Abstract

This study synthesized silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) using silver nitrate (AgNO₃) as the ion source and sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) as reducing as well as capping agents. The synthesized Ag-NPs were confirmed initially using Ag-NPs specific λ_max at 410 nm with UV-Vis spectrophotometry and homogenously distributed, 100–300 nm size, and round-shaped particles were realized through atomic force microscopy (AFM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image analysis. The various reaction condition-based studies revealed 0.01 M AgNO₃ yields maximum particle after 4 h reduction with 1% STPP. Bacillus spp. (n = 23/90) and Pseudomonas spp. (n = 26/90) were isolated from three different poultry farms for evaluating the antibacterial activity of Ag-NPs. Among the PCR confirmed isolates, 52% (12/23) Bacillus spp. were resistant to ten antibiotics and 65% (17/26) Pseudomonas spp. were resistant to eleven antibiotics. The representative resistant isolates were subjected to antibacterial evaluation of synthesized Ag-NPs following the well diffusion method, revealing the maximum sensitive zone of inhibition 19 ± 0.2 mm against Bacillus spp. and 17 ± 0.38 mm against Pseudomonas spp. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bacterial concentration (MBC) of Ag-NPs were 2.1 μg/ml and 8.4 μg/ml, respectively, for broad-spectrum application. Finally, the biocompatibility was determined by observing the viability of Ag-NP-treated BHK-21 cell through trypan blue-based exclusion assay revealing nonsignificant decreased of cell viability ≤2MIC doses. Thus, the synthesized Ag-NPs were proven as biocompatible and sensitive to both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria of the poultry farm environmental samples.

1. Introduction

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a global health threat because of indiscriminate use of antibiotics in many fields including medical, veterinary medical, and agriculture [1–3]. Nowadays, this threat is increasing proportionately with the increase livestock farming to satisfy huge demand of foods of animal origin [4]. The irrational use of antibiotic and their residues in food chain has been considered as the main cause for such an aggravating situation [5, 6]. Antibiotic resistance often confers to circulate environmental microflora, causing many clinical that are nonresponsive to commercial antibiotics [7, 8]. Therefore, such antibiotic residue laden livestock production does not comply with consumer safety [9]. Generally, commercial farmers are using antibiotics indiscriminately to their farm to obtain maximum production without considering withdrawal periods [10]. As a result, majority of those antibiotics remain as residues in food products that confer antimicrobial resistance to the consumers [11]. The resistance genes are not only confined in the poultry commensal microflora but often confer genes among other environmental microflora [12–14]. This is because human microflora also develop such resistance through plasmid shearing and become resistant to many available antibiotics [15]. If this situation continues, the condition will arise as an emerging catastrophe when bacteria will develop resistance against all the reserve antimicrobials [16]. Considering this, many countries have already forecasted the emergence of post-antibiotic era with serious consequences when a patient would have already died from ordinary septicemia [17]. Thus, AMR has appeared as a potential public health threat in many third world countries where people are prone to bacterial infections [18, 19]. Therefore, exploring new antibacterial for controlling spread of resistance microflora that originated from the poultry farm and poultry farm environments is critically required. Focusing this, many researchers across the globe search for introduction of antibacterial nanomaterials such as chitosan, gold, and silver nanoparticles as an alternate to antibiotics [7].

Ag-NPs possess many unique properties including enhanced functionality, durability of action, surface-to-volume ratio, chemical complexation, increased surface areas, enhanced ion-exchange ability, antitoxicity, and stability [20, 21]. The positively charged surface, ligand replacement ability, and oxidative dissolution capabilities of Ag-NPs facilitate their binding to the negatively charged bacterial cell-wall, resulting in an enhanced bactericidal effect [22, 23]. Because of those advantageous features, Ag-NPs have emphasized in various biomedical [24–26] and biological applications including antibacterial, anticancer [27, 28], anti-inflammatory, antiangiogenic [29], antifungal, antiviral agents [30, 31] and in several other industrial and household applications, such as cosmetic products, medical device coating, freeze coating, optical sensor developments [32], diagnostic device development [33–36], paint industry, food industry, socks, clothing, and disinfectant [37, 38]. Following those applications, recently, many researchers of Bangladesh have already utilized imported nanomaterials from the commercial sources [37]. Likewise, we have also investigated antibacterial activity of commercial Ag-NPs obtained from abroad against poultry pathogens such as E. coli, Salmonella spp., and Staphylococcus spp. collected from various live bird markets [39]. However, the use of these commercial metal nanoparticles in poultry farming is not feasible because of their high cost, complex engineering, and bioincompatible synthesis [40]. Therefore, easy, cost-effective, and facile nanoparticle synthesis protocol is critically required. Generally, nanomaterial synthesis involves a bottom-up approach (scaling-up of subnano molecules/atoms) using sol-gel process, spray pyrolysis, atomic molecular condensations, vapor depositions, chemicals and electrochemical depositions, and aerosol process [41] and a top-down approach (scaling-down of bulk materials to the nanoscale) using sputtering, thermal or laser ablation, chemical etching, mechanical/ball milling, and explosion processes [42]. All these approaches are not suitable because of low particles yield, limited reproducibility, difficulties in handling, and prolonged reduction time [43, 44]. Moreover, most of the commercially available nanoparticle synthesis methods involved many costly instruments, such as photolithography, nanoimprinting, e-beam lithography, and lyophilizer, for obtaining functional nanomaterials [45, 46]. Such synthesized particles often lost antibacterial performances because of capping agents that irreversibly blocked the functional groups of yielded particles [47]. Overcoming those limitations, the present research was designed for synthesizing Ag-NPs using a facile sol-gel method avoiding the use of any capping agent for obtaining nanoparticles with maximum antibacterial activity.

Herein, a facile sol-gel, bottom-up synthesis approach was employed for attaining high volume with homogenously disperse antimicrobial nanoparticles [48–50]. For this, the proposed method employed AgNO₃ as the ion source, sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) as reducing agents and capping/stabilizing agents [51]. The synthesized Ag-NPs were confirmed using UV-Vis spectrophotometry and atomic force microscopy (AFM). For the antibacterial evaluation and stability of Ag-NPs, antibiotic resistance Bacillus spp. (as a candidate of Gram-positive) and Pseudomonas spp. (as a candidate of Gram-negative bacteria) were isolated from the different poultry environments surrounding the Bangladesh Agricultural University campus. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bacterial concentration (MBC) were determined following broth dilution and the agar diffusion method [52, 53]. The antibacterial effect of synthesized Ag-NPs against isolated bacteria was evaluated through standard dish diffusion methods followed by measuring the zone of inhibition in comparison with resistance antibiotic of cephalexin and chloramphenicol [54, 55]. Recently, antimicrobial residue in poultry and poultry products is considered as a potential contributor of emergence of resistant microflora in the environment [56]. The rapid expansion of poultry industry aggravated this situation and became a serious public health threat because of irrational use of antibiotics and antibiotic residue laden poultry [57, 58]. Overcoming this situation, many researchers also synthesized antimicrobial nanomaterials as an alternative of commercial antibiotics [59–64]. However, these antibacterial nanomaterials are not suitable for in vivo application due to their bioincompatible nature [59, 65–67]. So, the biocompatible antibacterial nanomaterial is critically required prior to in vivo applications. Hence, this research focused on synthesis and characterization Ag-NPs as antimicrobial nanomaterials against bacteria isolated from poultry and cytotoxicity effect evaluation using BHK-21 cell line following trypan blue exclusion assay. The Ag-NP synthesis program employed a simple cost-effective sol-gel method for ensuring maximum particle yield, enhancing antibacterial activity [68, 69]. Thus, the synthesized biocompatible antibacterial Ag-NPs could be employed as an alternative of antibiotics for tackling resistance bacterial infection in the poultry farms and thereby impact on curving the use of antibiotics in poultry farming.

2. Materials and Methods

The approached methodologies of the study include three major tasks, namely, (i) facile synthesis of Ag-NPs, (ii) isolation and identification of bacteria, and (iii) antibacterial effect evaluation of the yielded nanoparticles. The facile synthesis protocol was realized through several trial experiments for determining appropriate concentration of ion source and optimum reduction periods. The antibacterial activity assay was performed by the standard dish diffusion method [70] using the synthesized Ag-NPs against the bacteria isolated from various environmental settings surrounding poultry farms. The antibacterial sensitivity and stability of Ag-NPs were determined by measuring the diameter of zones of inhibition surrounding the wells [42, 46]. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bacterial concentration (MBC) of yielded Ag-NPs were also determined using UV-Vis spectroscopy following the broth dilution and Agar dilution methods [71].

2.1. Materials

Silver nitrate (AgNO₃) and sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) were purchased from Sigma Aldrich, USA. Bacterial culture medium (nutrient broth, nutrient agar, Tryptic Soy Agar, blood agar, Mueller–Hinton Agar, and Mueller–Hinton Broth) were purchased from HiMedia Laboratories Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, India. PCR master mixer, primer sets (16s rRNA gene and 16s rDNA gene), agarose powder, DNA ladder, Tris-acetate-EDTA (TAE) buffer, and nuclease free water were purchased from Promegra, Madison, USA. All the materials were received in purish grade and used as instructed in the safety datasheet.

2.2. Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles (Ag-NPs)

For synthesis of Ag-NPs, 0.05 M STPP solution was prepared as reducing agents and 0.1 M, 0.01 M, and 0.001 M AgNO₃ solutions were prepared as ion source according to the methods by Wang et al. and Zielińska et al. [38, 72] as illustrated in Figure 1. The freshly prepared STPP solution was added into different concentrations of AgNO₃ solution (0.1 M, 0.01 M, and 0.001 M) at ratio 1 : 5 and stirred at various periods (1–5 h) for 1200 rpm at 80°C until the color changed. The solution color was monitored and a small amount of Ag-NPs solution was collected in every hour interval. When the golden color solution was achieved, all the collected solution was characterized and the suitable reduction reaction period was confirmed. After confirming suitable reduction time, the Ag-NPs were further synthesized on AgNO₃ concentration basis (0.1 M, 0.01 M, and 0.001 M) for obtaining maximum Ag-NPs solution. Once the solution color shifted from transparent to golden color, all the mixtures were centrifuged at 1300 rpm for 10 minutes, and the supernatant was collected for physical characterization and antibacterial effect evaluation.

2.3. Physical Characterizations of Ag-NPs

The morphological features of synthesized Ag-NPs were investigated with atomic force microscopy (AFM, Nano surf Flex) using contact mode to determine the particle size and dimension [73]. Before taking images, the supernatant was spin-coated at 1300 rpm and dried in an oven at 60°C. The measurement was performed in a faradic case at room temperature. The dimensions of the nanostructures were measured from the height profile of topographic images. Whereas, the physical structural morphology of yielded Ag-NPs was determined through transmission electron microscopy. The concentration of Ag-NPs was investigated with UV visible spectra recorded with a UV-Vis spectrometer [74] at the range 300 nm–500 nm for confirming the concentration of synthesized nanoparticles where distilled water was kept as a control. Data obtained from blank solution and chemically synthesized Ag-NPs solution were compared viewing the shifting of the bandgap.

2.4. Isolation and Identification of Bacteria from Poultry Farm Environment

2.4.1. Sample Collection and Morphological Characterization

The air, drainage, and surface swab samples (n = 90) of poultry farm were collected from different poultry farms (such as Al-hira farm, Trisal, BAU Poultry farm, and Shahidul farm, Modhupur) surrounding Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh. The drainage and surface samples were collected and incubated into a shaker incubator at 37°C overnight utilizing nutrient broth for enrichment of the culture. The enriched culture was streaked on a nutrient agar medium and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. The air sample was collected by exposing the nutrient agar plate inside and outside of the farm for 30 minutes and transferred into the incubator through ice box aseptically [75]. The fresh single colony from the incubated nutrient agar medium plate was picked and again streaked to a bacteria-specific medium such as MacConkey agar medium and blood agar medium and incubated at 37°C for 24 h for investigating cultural characteristics of specific bacteria. Then, the pure colony from the specific culture medium was subcultured and a pure single colony from the selective medium was smeared on a sterilized glass slide and air-dried. The dried slide was heat fixed and stained with gram-staining materials following standard operating procedure [76].

2.4.2. Biochemical Confirmation

For further confirmation of bacteria, the five basic sugars (dextrose, maltose, mannitol, glucose, and sucrose) fermentation test was performed. 100 μl of pure broth culture of the isolated bacteria was inoculated into a broth containing dextrose, maltose, mannitol, glucose, and sucrose and incubated at 37°C for 18 h. Finally, observed sugar fermentation and/with gas formation in the inoculated test tube for biochemical confirmation of isolated bacteria [77].

2.4.3. Confirmation of Genus Specific Genes Using PCR

DNA extraction of Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. was performed following boiling method according to the method by Al-Hejjaj et al. [78]. For polymeric chain reaction (PCR), the master mixture (25 μl) was prepared according to the method by Mohamed et al. [79] where the thermal profiles of 16s rRNA gene for Bacillus spp. and 16s rDNA gene for Pseudomonas spp. (Table 1). For preparing 1.5% agarose gel, 0.45 g of nobel agar was dissolved into 1 X TAE buffer. After solidification, the gel was transferred to the electrophoresis tank and loaded with 3 μl of loading dye (range 100–1000 bp), 5 μl of amplified PCR product, and a control in the wells. The leads of the electrophoresis apparatus were connected to the power supply and electrophoresis was run at 100 V for 25 minutes. The gel was stained in ethidium bromide (0.5 μl) for 10 minutes in a dark place. Then, the gel was destained in distilled water for 2 minutes and then transferred to UV transilluminator in the dark chamber for optical documentation.

2.5. Determination of Antibiotic Resistance Pattern of Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp

The PCR confirmed Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. were subjected to the determination of antibiotic resistance pattern, following antibiogram profiling using commercially available antibiotics discs. The antibiotic resistance patterns against of those isolates were determined by measuring the zone of inhibitions surrounding the discs following disc diffusion methods (Bauer et al., 1966).

2.6. Determination of Antibacterial Activity and Stability of Ag-NPs

The antibacterial activities and stability of Ag-NPs were determined following the dish diffusion method [70]. The single colony of isolated bacteria (Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp.) was inoculated into nutrient agar and incubated overnight. The freshly cultured broth was employed for preparing 0.5 McFarland (10⁵ cfu/ml) bacterial culture according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute [82]. After incubation, 100 μl of each bacterial samples were spread on freshly prepared Mueller–Hinton agar and each MH agar plate, 5 wells in a diameter of 3 mm were cut and 50 μl of Ag-NPs were placed in three wells, and cephalexin and chloramphenicol were placed in each well for Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp., while control was kept empty for each plate. The MH plate incubated overnight for measuring zones of inhibition [83]. Likewise, the stability of yielded particles was tested using the stability of UV-Vis spectroscopic λ_max peak, and measuring the zones of inhibition of Ag-NPs appeared during antibacterial activity assay. The experiment was replicated thrice, and the zones of inhibition were measured using slide calipash. Data obtained from inhibitory zones were used for categorizing levels of sensitivity/resistance according to CLSI 2019.

2.7. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bacterial Concentration (MBC) Determination

The MIC of yielded Ag-NPs was measured using UV-Vis spectroscopy following the broth dilution methods as shown in Figure 2 [84]. The 2-fold dilution (Figure 2(a)) of differently synthesized Ag-NPs was prepared sequentially with freshly prepared Mueller–Hinton broth. Then, 100 μl of the 0.5 McFarland (10⁵ cfu/mL) bacterial culture (Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp.) were added into each dilution without control and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. The turbidity of each incubated tube was measured optically and UV-Vis spectroscopically (Figure 2(b)) compared with control turbidity [85]. The maximum percentages (100−95%) of transparency with an inhibited bacterial growth were considered as MIC [86]. Additionally, the MBC of each dilution was measured following the Agar dilution method (Figures 2(c) and 2(d)), using 100 μl of dilutions of MIC without visible turbidity and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. Finally, the lowest concentration at which the bacteria did not grow was considered as MBC.

2.8. Determination of Biocompatibility of Ag-NPs

2.8.1. Cell Culture and Maintenance

The cytotoxic effect of Ag-NPs was determined using BHK-21 cell line. For this, a frozen cell was thawed and seeded in the cell culture plates providing all necessary nutrients such as DMEM supplemented with 1% pens-step and 10% FBS and incubated aseptically at 37°C with 70% humidity and 5% CO₂ for achieving monolayer culture. The confluent cells from the third passages were utilized for the determination of Ag-NPs treated cell viability following trypan blue exclusion assay [87, 88].

2.8.2. Cell Viability Assay

For the detection of cytotoxic effect of Ag-NPs, different doses of Ag-NPs were treated into confluent monolayer of BHK-21 cell and their viabilities were calculated according to the method by Kamiloglu et al. [89]. For calculating cell number, 10 μl of trypan blue was mixed with cell suspension and applied to a hemocytometer. The hemocytometer was investigated under a microscope for counting all 4 sets of 16 corners, while the stained cells were excluded from counting.

2.9. Statistical Analysis

Data obtained from the thrice replication on the inhibitory effects from the differently prepared chitosan nanoparticle solution were analyzed with one-way ANOVA followed by paired t-test performed for standard error and the value. The level of significance was determined using the Bonferroni posthoc test where values <0.05 were considered the significance level.

3. Results

3.1. Synthesis and Physical Characterization of Ag-NPs

3.1.1. Synthesis of Ag-NPs

The Ag-NPs synthesis programme employed AgNO₃ as Ag⁺ ion source and sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) as a reducing as well as capping agent. Such chemical synthesis was initially confirmed by observing color shifting from transparent to golden solution during the reduction reaction period (Figure 3). The result revealed that golden color Ag-NPs solution was obtained at 4 h reduction period whereas, almond color was obtained at 3 h and cider orange color was achieved after 5 h reduction as shown in Figure 3(a). The solution color was transparent and brown at 1 h and 2 h reaction, respectively, as shown in Figure 3(a). Such shift in color was due to the variation of particle yields with various reduction reaction periods. These particles concentration-based shift in color was further investigated quantitatively using Ag-NP specific λ_max at 410 nm obtained from UV-Vis spectroscopy. The UV-Vis spectra showed maximum particle yielded at 4 h reduction reaction as indicated in green line of Figure 3(b), whereas at 1 h, 2 h, and 3 h reduction reaction, the particle yield was increased gradually as indicated in black, red, and blue line of Figure 3(b). In case of 5 h reduction, the particles yield decreased as indicated in violet line of Figure 3(b). Considering the maximum particle yield, the 4 h reduction reaction was selected for further Ag-NPs synthesis with varying AgNO₃ concentration to determine optimum concentration of ion source.

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The absorbance spectrum of yielded Ag-NPs from various concentrations of AgNO₃ solution is presented in Figure 4, where inset showed golden color with maximum Ag-NPs achieved when 0.01 M AgNO₃ was employed whereas, squirrel and cider orange color with minimum Ag-NPs achieved when 0.1 M and 0.001 M AgNO₃ was employed. The corresponding UV-Vis spectroscopy revealed that, maximum Ag-NPs yielded at concentration of 0.01 M as indicated in red line whereas, relatively less Ag-NPs yielded at the concentration of 0.1 M and 0.001 M, respectively, as indicated in black and blue line of Figure 4. Such variations of particle yield were resulted from the variations of ration between ion source and reducing agent. However, the synthesized Ag-NPs were further confirmed by physical characterization using AFM.

3.1.2. Morphological Investigation with AFM and TEM

Three-dimensional (3D) topographic AFM images were analyzed to determine morphology and dimensions of yielded Ag-NPs as shown in Figure 5. The results revealed that, the maximum nanoparticles with homogenous dimension were achieved when 0.01 M AgNO₃ solution employed as shown in Figure 5(c). Whereas, nonhomogenous dimensions of Ag-NPs was noticed from 0.1 M to 0.001 M AgNO₃ solution as shown in Figures 5(b) and 5(d), while no such particle was observed from the control surface as shown in Figure 5(a).

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The TEM images were employed for realizing the actual morphological features of the yielded particles. The TEM image of yielded Ag-NPs revealed a round-shaped particle with 100–300 nm size nanoparticles was obtained when 0.01 M AgNO₃ solution was employed as the ion source as shown in Figure 6(b). Whereas, no such particle yield was observed from the control surface as shown in Figure 6(a).

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3.2. Isolation and Identification of Bacteria

Among the 90 (ninety) poultry farm, environmental samples 23 (twenty-three) were characterized as Bacillus spp. and 26 (twenty-three) as Pseudomonas spp. Here, the colony morphology of isolated bacteria was used for determining the bacteria as shown in Figure 7. The large, flat, granular to ground grass, and β-hemolytic colonies on blood agar medium indicates Bacillus spp. as shown in Figure 7(a). Whereas, circular, smooth, raised, and blue-green colonies on MacConkey agar media indicating Pseudomonas spp. as shown in Figure 7(d). The Gram’s staining of a single colony from blood agar medium smeared on a freshly cleaned glass slide showed rod-shaped ones with square-ended purple color indicating Gram-positive Bacillus spp. as shown in Figure 7(b). Whereas, small rod with pink color bacterium from the smeared prepared with a single colonies from MacConkey agar indicated Gram-negativePseudomonas spp. as shown in Figure 7(e). The sugar fermentation test revealed color changes along with gas formation in dextrose, and for Bacillus spp. (see Figure S1a) while, no color change and gas formation occurred in dextrose, maltose, lactose, and sucrose except mannitol for Pseudomonas spp. (see Figure S1b).

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The amplified PCR product using primer of 16s rRNA gene showed 463 bp band size when DNA extracted from blood agar was employed. The PCR product band at 463 bp indicated Bacillus spp. as shown in Figure 7(c). Whereas, amplified PCR product using primer of 16s rDNA gene showed 618 bp band size when DNA extracted from MacConkey agar was employed indicating Pseudomonas spp. as shown in Figure 7(f).

3.3. Determination of Antibiotic Resistance Pattern of Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. Using Commercial Antibiotics

The antibiotic resistance pattern against those isolates was determined by measuring the zone of inhibitions surrounding the disc as shown in Figure 8. Among all isolated Bacillus spp., 52% (12/23) isolates showed resistant (8 ± 0.7 mm zone of inhibition) to ten antibiotics, namely, aztreonam, ampicillin, cefixine, vancomycin, doxycycline, linezolid, erythromycin, trimethoprim, levofloxacin, and moxifloxacin out of 12 antibiotic tested as shown in Figure 8(a). While, gentamycin and chloramphenicol showed sensitive (15 ± 0.7 mm) zone of inhibition according to CLSI 2019. However, in case of Pseudomonas spp., 65% (17/26) isolates showed resistant (9 ± 0.6 mm) to eleven antibiotics, namely, ampicillin, cefixime, aztreonam, vancomycin, doxycycline, linezolid, erythromycin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim, levofloxacin, and moxifloxacin, while only gentamycin (17 ± 0.6 mm) showed sensitivity to all isolates as shown in Figure 8(b). Thus, the antibiotic resistant Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. were subjected to antibacterial activity evaluation of yielded Ag-NPs.

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3.4. Determination of Antibacterial Activity of Synthesized Ag-NPs

The confirmed antibiotic resistance isolates (Bacillus spp. and pseudomonas spp.) from poultry environment were subjected to antibacterial evaluation of the yielded nanoparticle. The antibacterial effect of synthesized Ag-NPs utilizing different AgNO₃ concentrations were determined by measuring the zone of inhibitions as shown in Figure 9. The results revealed that maximum zoon of inhibition of Ag-NPs (19 ± 0.4 mm) against Bacillus spp. was observed when Ag-NPs synthesized utilizing 0.01 M AgNO₃ solution, and minimum zoon of inhibition of Ag-NPs (11 ± 0.2 mm) was observed when Ag-NPs synthesized utilizing 0.1 M AgNO₃ solution as shown in Figure 9(a). Likewise, maximum zoon of inhibition of Ag-NP (17 ± 0.38 mm) against pseudomonas spp. was observed when Ag-NPs synthesized utilizing 0.01 M AgNO₃ solution, and minimum zoon of inhibition of Ag-NPs (12 ± 0.3 mm) was observed when Ag-NPs synthesized utilizing 0.1 M AgNO₃ solution as shown in Figure 9(b). While, cephalexin and chloramphenicol and negative control showed no zone of inhibition against Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. Thus, Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. were considered as resistant bacteria to antibiotic, but susceptible to the synthesized Ag-NPs.

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3.5. Stability of Synthesized Ag-NPs

The stability of particle size and their antibacterial activity were determined at different periods of post synthesis using UV-Vis spectroscopy and antibacterial activity assay. The absorbance peaks λ_max at 410 nm of Ag-NPs were stable till 5^th day post synthesis, whereas the absorbance peak was shifted from 410 nm to 420 nm with decreasing peak intensity at 6^th day post synthesis was noticed as shown in Figure 10(a). Likewise, in case of antibacterial effect assay, the zones of inhibition surrounding the Ag-NPs treated well were observed till 5^th day post synthesis, while the zone of inhibition was significantly decreased at the 6^th day post synthesis as shown in Figures 10(b) and 10(c). Thus, both the study confirmed the particles in yielded solution were stable till 5^th day post synthesis. However, lyophilization of the yielded particle will prolong the stability of particle.

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3.6. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bacterial Concentration Determination (MBC)

After 24 h of incubation at 37°C, transmittance (%) for all Ag-NPs diluted test tubes were measured using UV-Vis spectroscopy for MIC and MBC determination as shown in Figure 11. The result revealed that, in case of Gram-positive bacteria of Bacillus spp. MIC was 1.06 μg/ml (showed 98–100% transparency) at the dilution of 10⁻⁵ when Ag-NPs were synthesized utilizing 0.01 M AgNO₃ solution as shown in Figure 11(a). Whereas, turbidity with huge bacterial growth (showed 20–25% transparency) was observed at the same dilution (10⁻⁵) when Ag-NPs synthesized with 0.1 M and 0.001 M AgNO₃ solution. Likewise, in case of Gram-negative bacteria of Pseudomonas spp. MIC was 4.2 μg/ml (showed 100−97% transparency) at the dilution of 10⁻³ when Ag-NPs were synthesized utilizing 0.01 M AgNO₃ solution as shown in Figure 11(b). Whereas, turbidity with huge bacterial growth (showed 10% transparency) was found at the same dilution when Ag-NPs synthesized utilizing 0.1 M and 0.001 M AgNO₃ solution. At the same time, the MBCs of Ag-NPs for Bacillus spp. was 2.1 μg/ml when Ag-NPs synthesized utilizing 0.01 M AgNO₃ solution. Whereas, the MBCs of Ag-NPs for Pseudomonas spp. was 8.5 μg/ml when Ag-NPs synthesized utilizing 0.01 M AgNO₃ solution. Thus, this study suggested 0.213 mg/ml Ag-NPs and 0.426 mg/ml of Ag-NPs as broad spectrum of MIC and MBC dose, respectively.

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3.7. Cell Viability for Cytotoxicity Evaluation of Ag-NPs

For biosafety evaluation, different MIC doses of Ag-NPs treated BHK-21 cell viability was determined by trypan blue exclusion assay. The cell viability of the Ag-NPs treated BHK-21 cell showed nonsignificant difference (0.29) ≤ 2 MIC. Whereas, a significant difference (0.0000006) of cell viability was noticed from cell treated with 3 MIC doses compared with control cell as shown in Figure 12.

4. Discussion

This nanoparticle synthesis program employed AgNO₃ as primary Ag⁺ ion source and sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) as reducing as well as capping agent [90]. Various periods of reduction reaction dependent synthesized Ag-NPs were initially confirmed by observing color shift from transparent to golden [91]. The maximum golden color solution at 4 h reduction period was resulted from the complete reduction of Ag⁺ ion [92]. Whereas, almond color solution was obtained at 3 h because of an incomplete reduction reaction [93, 94]. Cider orange color solution at 5 h reduction reaction resulted due to the aggregation of synthesized particle due to prolong exposure of the reducing agent [95]. In case of 1 h and 2 h reduction reaction, transparent and brown color solutions were appeared due to insufficient reduction reaction. This optical observation was further verified using UV-Vis spectroscopic analysis using the Ag-NPs specific absorption peak (λ_max) 410 nm [96]. It is well known that nanoparticle induces specific surface plasmon resonance depending of type of material and particle size [97, 98]. Thus absorption peak (λ_max) at approximately between 400–410 nm wave length was employed for confirming the Ag-NPs synthesis [68, 99]. This Ag-NPs synthesis was initiated with the hydrolysis of AgNO₃ salt into Ag⁺ and ions [100]. Later, this Ag⁺ ion was reduced to form Ag⁰ using STPP. For that, STPP was dissolved by heating at 80°C to form and Na⁵⁺ ions in the solution [101, 102]. This employed for the reduction of Ag⁺ ion to form Ag°, and finally several Ag° were aggregated during reduction reaction for the formation of Ag-NPs [103]. Thus, the size of the nanoscale particles was achieved through adjusting the concentrations of ion source, reducing agents, and period of reduction [104, 105]. The maximum absorption peak at 410 nm confirmed that highest Ag-NPs were yielded at 4 h reduction reaction. Whereas, relatively less intense absorption peak at 405 nm indicated low Ag-NPs yield at 1 h, 2 h, and 3 h reduction reaction. Many previous studies showed such absorption peak intensity based varying concentration of particle yield elsewhere [99, 106, 107]. In case of 5 h reduction period, less intensity of absorption peak at 400 nm indicates the threshold of the reduction reaction period for optimum Ag-NPs yield [108]. Thus, 4 h reduction reaction time was selected for further Ag-NPs synthesis with varying AgNO₃ concentration to determine optimum concentration of ion source.

Suitable concentrations of ion source for Ag-NPs synthesis was confirmed with golden color solution after complete reduction reaction. The golden color indicated the maximum Ag-NPs yield when 0.01 M AgNO₃ was employed [91, 92, 109]. Whereas, squirrel and cider orange color with minimum Ag-NPs was yielded when 0.1 M and 0.00 1 M AgNO₃ solution was utilized. The highest absorption peak (λ_max) at 405 nm confirmed that maximum Ag-NPs were yielded at concentration of 0.01 M because of the appropriate ration of ion source and reducing agent [110]. Whereas, relatively less intensity of the absorption peak at 405 nm confirmed that relatively less Ag-NPs were yielded at a concentration of 0.1 M and 0.001 M due to presence of inappropriate ratio of ion source and reducing agent. Such concentration of ion source and reducing agent based varying particle yields were reported for many other nanoparticles elsewhere [21, 38, 72, 96]. These visual and spectroscopic observations were further verified with various physical characterization tools for realizing morphological features of the yielded particles [111–117]. The three-dimensional topographic atomic force microscopic images showed that, the maximum nano particles with homogenous dimension were obtained when 0.01 M AgNO₃ solution was employed. Whereas, nonhomogenous dispersed Ag-NPs observed when 0.1 M and 0.001 M AgNO₃ solution were employed. While, no such particle was noticed from control surface. Such AFM observations completely coincided with UV-Vis spectroscopic analysis. The TEM analysis also revealed round to spherical shaped (100–300 nm) nanoparticles yielded from 0.001 M ion source with 15% reducing agent at 4 h reduction indicating formation of Ag-NPs.

The physically confirmed Ag-NPs were subjected to antibacterial evaluation against bacteria isolated from various environmental settings of poultry farm. For that, bacterium was isolated from three different poultry farm in and around Bangladesh Agricultural University campus for obtaining antibiotic resistance bacteria. Considering the availability and Grams staining properties, Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. were selected as potential candidate of Gram-positive and Gram-negative species, respectively. Isolation and identification of bacteria were performed using cultural, gram staining, sugar fermentation, and genius specific PCR investigation [80, 117]. For isolating Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp., blood agar (BA) and MacConkey agar (MCA) were used as selective media [78, 118]. In BA medium, colonies were arranged as large, flat, and granular to ground-glass with β-hemolysis [119]. The β-hemolysis appeared due to the presence of hemolysin enzyme that completely break down the blood cell and displayed clear halos around bacterial colony suggesting growth of Bacillus spp. [120]. In case of MCA medium, circular, smooth, raised, and blue-green colonies indicating growth of Pseudomonas spp. [119]. Likewise, microscopic investigations revealed purple color and rod-shaped with square ended bacteria in stained smear prepared from BA confirming Gram-positive Bacillus spp. [117, 121]. While, staining from MCA revealed small rod with pink color bacteria confirmed Gram-negative Pseudomonas spp. [122]. Additionally, sugar fermentation test was also employed for further confirmation of isolates by observing changes of color and production of gases. Isolates from BA exhibited no color change (pinkish) for all the four basic sugar in comparison with control, while dextrose turned to orange color without gas formation in Durham’s tube suggesting presence of Bacillus spp. [123]. Whereas, no color change (pinkish) for all the four basic sugars without production of gases were exhibited, while the color of mannitol sugar was changes from pink to orange without gas production in cases of isolates from MCA suggesting presence of Pseudomonas spp. [124]. Furthermore, PCR test for all culturally and morphologically detected isolates were performed with their gene specific primers. Here, 16s rRNA and 16s rDNA primers were used for amplifying the DNA templates obtained from the isolates of BA and MCA, respectively [125, 126]. The amplicon of 463 bp and 618 bp on gel documentation confirmed the presence of Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp., respectively [80, 81].

The PCR confirmed bacterial species were subjected to determination of antibiotic resistance pattern phenotypically using 12 commercial antibiotics from different classes and groups such as gentamycin, ampicillin, cefixime, aztreonam, vancomycin, doxycycline, linezolid, erythromycin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim, levofloxacin, and moxifloxacin following the disc diffusion methods [127]. Bacillus spp. was resistant to 10 antibiotics and Pseudomonas spp. was resistant to 11 antibiotics indicating both the isolates were multidrug resistance (MDR). It is well known that the isolates that are resistant to more than three antibiotics class are known as MDR [128–132]. Using those MDR isolates, the antibacterial effect of Ag-NPs was verified in comparison with commercial antibiotics. Here, the zone of inhibition of ≤15 mm for various antibiotics was known to be resistant according to CLSI, 2019 [133]. Even though both Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. showed resistance to cephalexin and chloramphenicol, the Ag-NPs produces sensitive zone of inhibition against them. Herein, Ag-NPs showed inhibitory zone diameter ˃15 mm for all the cases suggesting that Ag-NPs were an effective alternative of antibiotics. The stability assay of Ag-NPs revealed that the yielded solutions were stable till 5^th day post synthesis because of their agglomeration tendency after prolog periods of post synthesis. Therefore, to achieve stability for prolong periods the yielded particle needs to be lyophilized [134]. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of Ag-NPs for inhibiting bacterial growth was measured based on transmittance spectra obtained from UV-Vis spectroscopy [84, 85, 135]. The turbidity of the broth due to bacterial growth showed a reciprocal relationship with the transmittance value, while transmittance ranges from 100 to 96% utilized as an indicator for bacterial growth inhibition as mentioned elsewhere [136]. Such spectroscopic observations were employed for determining MIC of newly synthesized Ag-NPs. The MIC value of synthesized Ag-NPs was 1.06 μg/ml for Bacillus spp. and 4.2 μg/ml for Pseudomonas spp., indicating that 4.2 μg/ml of Ag-NPs can completely inhibit the growth of both the Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria [85, 86, 136]. Likewise, the minimum bacterial concentration (MBC) was also determined, following the agar dilution methods [86]. The MBC of Ag-NPs 2.1 μg/ml for Gram-positive and 8.5 μg/ml for Gram-negative reveals that 8.5 μg/ml of Ag-NPs can kill 10⁵ CFU/ml of antibiotic resistance bacterial. Both the MIC and MBC value revealed that the newly synthesized Ag-NPs inhibit bacterial growth at ten times less concentration of Ag-NPs compared to previously synthesized Ag-NPs (Table S1). This significant enhancement of newly synthesized Ag-NPs is due to the availability of positively charged surface area since the particle was synthesized without a capping agent. Such noncapped positively charged Ag-NPs electrostatically interacted with the negatively charged bacterial cell wall for exerting the antibacterial effect [7]. Thus, the synthesized Ag-NPs with excellent antimicrobial activity against both the Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria hold a promise to be an effective alternative to commercial antibiotics in controlling resistant microflora in the farm environment as well as to prevent the spreading resistance gene among other environmental flora through plasmid shearing.

The biosafety compliance of any therapeutics is considered as major steps prior to their in vivo applications [137]. Considering this, the present study evaluates biosafety of the synthesized Ag-NPs on BHK-21 cell line by measuring cell viability using a trypen blue exclusion assay [138, 139]. This trypen blue-based cell viability data showed a nonsignificant difference in between the control and ≥2 MIC doses Ag-NPs treatment. Whereas, the significant difference in the cell viability was observed from cells treated with 3 MIC dose. In case of 3 MIC dose, the cell viability was decreased due to the changes of pH of the cell culture media. Usually, in vitro cell culture 7.4 pH is critically required whereas, 3 MIC dose of Ag-NPs solution breaks this pH homeostasis because of the presence of STPP [140–142]. This study employed Ag-NPs solution containing unused STPP which may be responsible for such decrease in cell viability. However, lyophilized Ag-NPs from the yielded solution could overcome this pH change-based decrease in cell viability. Such lyophilized Ag-NPs would be safe even at several-fold higher MIC doses.

5. Conclusions

This facile synthesis programme successfully synthesized Ag-NPs employing silver nitrate (AgNO₃) as the ion source and sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) as reducing as well as capping agents. The homogenously distributed, round shaped, and 100–300 nm size Ag-NPs was revealed from 0.01 M ion source after 4 h reduction reaction with 1% STPP. The synthesized Ag-NPs showed excellent sensitivity against MDR positive Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. isolated from poultry farm environment. The particles concentration and antibacterial effect was stable up to 5 (five) days post synthesis in their aqueous state. The particle showed excellent broad-spectrum activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The yielded Ag-NPs were nontoxic for the living system up to 2 MIC doses. Thus, the synthesized Ag-NPs could be an effective alternative of antibiotics for tackling bacterial infection in poultry farm. Such application of antibacterial Ag-NPs will carve the use of antibiotics in poultry farming.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge all laboratory staffs of the department of Microbiology and Hygiene, BAU. The Bangladesh Agricultural University Research System (BAURES, Project. no. 2021/81/BAU) funded this research.

Supplementary Materials

Figures S1a–S1b show biochemical characterization of Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp., and Table S1 showsthe comparative analysis of Ag-NPs synthesis with previously synthesized antibacterial Ag-NPs. (Supplementary Materials)

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